The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane and provides the cell tensile strength and protection. Plant cells have some specialized properties that make them distinct from animal cells.

Like the exterior walls of a house, the plasma membrane is semi-permeable ... not the only one that generates energy in living cells. In plant and other photosynthetic cells, chloroplasts also ...

"Plant cells form a cell plate to divide the two ... the daughter cells across fenestrae (small openings) and the plasma membrane molds around these tubules to form plasmodesmata," said Joshi.

Eventually, the concentration either side of the membrane will ... pulls away from the cell wall. This process is called plasmolysis. The cell becomes flaccid and the plant wilts.

A new approach to elucidate the operation and control of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells is being developed. A global reactor engineering approach is applied to PEM fuel cells to ...